The Harmful Effects Of Discrimination And Segregation Essay -- essays

Discrimination and Segregation have both had many harmful effects on society in the past and exist when individuals are treated unfairly because of their particular race, gender, age, ethnic group, physical disability, or religion. Discrimination and segregation both poison the atmosphere of trust that we need in order to live peacefully. In the video 'Separate but Equal';, there are many incidences to prove that racism, segregation, and discrimination all have negative effects. The three most prominent effects of discrimination and segregation combined are Inferiority, fear, and anger.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Inferiority is a major issue when discussing the effects of discrimination and segregation. In the Plessy vs. Ferguson case it was ruled that there may be segregation, but the people must be equal-Separate but Equal';. After this ruling all facilities were separated according to race, but in fact were not even close to being equal to each other. The white mans facilities were almost 100 times better than the blacks. Then in the Brown vs. Board of Education in Topeka case it was brought to attention that segregation and discrimination obviously affect the children's state of mind. In the experiment to prove this hypothesis many black children were given a variety of white dolls and black dolls. They were then told to describe what they thought of each doll. The results were in fact that majority of the young black children related the bad characteristics with th...

Free Yellow Wallpaper Essays: Oppression of Women :: The Yellow Wallpaper Essays

The Oppression of Women in The Yellow Wallpaper The Yellow Wallpaper is a story, by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Although the work is short, it is one of the most interesting works in existence. Gilman uses literary techniques very well. The symbolism of The Yellow Wallpaper, can be seen and employed after some thought and make sense immediately. The views and ideals of society are often found in literary works. Whether the author is trying to show the ills of society of merely telling a story, culture is woven onto the words. The relationship between the narrator and her husband would be disagreeable to a modern woman's relationship. Today, most women crave equality with their partner. The reader never learns the name of the narrator, perhaps to give the illusion that she could be any woman. On the very fist page of The Yellow Wall-Paper, Gilman illustrates the male dominated society and relationship. It was customary for men to assume that their gender knew what, when, how, and why to do things. John, the narrator's husband, is a p rominent doctor and both his and his wife's words and actions reflect the aforementioned stereotype: "John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage," (9). This statement illustrates the blatant sexism of society at the time. John does not believe that his wife is sick, while she is really suffering from post-partum depression. He neglects to listen to his wife in regard to her thoughts, feelings, and health through this thought pattern. According to him, there is not anything wrong with his wife except for temporary nerve issues, which should not be serious. By closing her off from the rest of the world, he is taking her away from things that important to her mental state; such as her ability to read and write, her need for human interaction, her need to make her own decisions. All of these are important to all people. This idea of forced rest and relaxation to cure temporary nervous problems was very common at the time. Many doctors prescribed it for their female p atients. The narrators husband, brother, and their colleagues all feel that this is the correct way to fix her problem, which is practically nonexistent in their eyes. Throughout the beginning of the story, the narrator tends to buy into the idea that the man is always right and makes excuses for her feelings and his actions and words: "It is so hard to talk to John about my case, because he is so wise and because he loves me so," (23).

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment Essay

Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmend Freud. It is a system in which unconscious motivations are considered to shape normal and abnormal personality development and behavior. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development explains that if there was a conflict in a stage and not resolved that person would be fixated. Carl Jung’s Analytic Psychology is according to the mind or psyche. Alfred Alder’s Individual Psychology is the importance of each person’s perceived niche in society. Freud’s work is now the most heavily cited in all of psychology. Most of Freud’s patients did not need treatment so he resorted to using hypnosis. He used the technique of free association in order to understand the causes of mental and physical problems in his patients. Dreams to him were saw as pieces and hints of unconscious. The problems of inner conflict and tension are found in dreams. There are three structured parts in the mind according to Freud. The three parts are id, ego, and superego. Freud’s and Jung are compared by using unconscious sexuality in their theories. The id, das es in German means the it; it operates according to the demands of the pleasure principle to reduce inner tension. Ego is the Latin word for I. Personality that deals with the real world according to the reality principle to solve real problems. Superego rules over the ego and parts are unconscious, though it constrains our individual actions. Freud looked for meaning in minor connections thoughts and behaviors. Now 100 of years later there are no three levels id, ego, and superego. Freud was correct in concluding that certain parts of the mind are not subject to conscious awareness. His theories opened new approaches to human nature and psychotherapy. Carl Jung theory is divided into three parts just as Freud’s theory is. The three are unconscious, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious. Freud and Carl embody the sense of self for unconscious. Personal unconscious are thoughts and urges that are unimportant at the present. This contains past (retrospective) and future (prospective) material to be compensated to have a balance. Collective unconscious is comprises a deeper level of unconsciousness and is made up of powerful emotional symbols called archetypes. Archetypes are derived from the emotional reactions of our ancestors. Carl Jung was interested in the deepest universal aspects of personality and expanded ideas of the unconscious to include emotionally charged images and expanded ideas of all generations. He also gives the concepts of complexes meaning emotionally charged thoughts and feeling on a particular them. Another thing is he describes personality as being comprised of competing forces pulling against one another to reach equilibrium. Alfred Adler focused on the social world and its identity. Adler and Freud’s differences were in the origin of motivation. Freud theory was based on prime motivations that were built on pleasure and sexuality. Adler’s theory is based on motivations that are more complex. Adler was much more concerned with social conditions and saw the need to take preventive measures to avoid disturbances in personality. He believed personality problems can be avoided by using detailed knowledge about individuals to construct healthier social environment. Personality typology based loosely on Greek notions of the bodily humors. He believed in positive goal oriented and nature of human kind. There are two characteristics that I agree with which are: Jung’s personal unconscious and Alder’s superiority complex. There are two characteristics that I disagree with which are: Freud’s latency stage and Alder’s collective unconscious. Psychosexual Development has five stages: oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, Oedipus complex, Electra complex, latency stage, and genital stage. Oral stage is where we satisfy our hunger and thirst. Anal stage is where we feel relief when defecating. Phallic stage is where adolescents focus on genitals. Oedipus stage is where a young boy wants to kill his father to marry his beloved mother. This is the opposite for girls in the Electra complex. Latency stage is where adolescents focus more on academics and friendships. Genital stage is where marks the beginning of an adult life of normal sexual relations, marriage, and child-rearing. Challenges from the outer environment and from our inner urges threaten us with anxiety; there are three defense mechanisms that I can relate to very well. The three are reaction formation, displacement, and rationalization. The processes that the ego uses to distort reality to protect itself are called defense mechanisms. Reaction formation is the process of pushing away threatening impulses by overemphasizing the opposite in one’s thoughts and actions, e.g. Josephine was a classmate of mine in 2008. A lot of my peers in that year were exposing themselves to be either gay or lesbian. Josephine’s religious and outspoken background made her very judgmental towards her peers. Ultimately, the summer of 2009 being in the spotlight of high school she had a girlfriend. Displacement is the shifting of the target of one’s unconscious fears and desires, e.g. Jason and I get into arguments all the time just as any normal couple. The dishes were not washes like I had asked. For some reason my frustration was at an all-time high. The dog tipped over the trash can in the kitchen and in the bathroom. Not to mention the dog feces in the living. I had enough so I kicked my dog, Charles. Rationalization is a mechanism involving post-hoc logical explanations for behaviors that were actually driven by internal unconscious motives, e.g. I want to move back home so that it will be easier for the baby and I just know it would be so much easier and a better opportunity for me to concentrate on school, but the underlying is that I just want to leave my current home. In conclusion, psychoanalytic theory was developed by Freud. This is a system in which unconscious motivations are considered to shape normal and abnormal personality development and behavior. Both Freud and Jung believed ego played a huge part in personality and the unconscious sexuality. Adler and Freud’s theory differed by the origin of motivation. Freud believes in prime motivations were pleasure and sexuality. Adler believes in human motivations that are more complex. Like Jun Adler believed in the importance of the teleological aspects, or goal-directedness of human nature. Difference in Freud’s and Adler’s philosophies was that Adler was much more concerned with social conditions. He saw the need to take preventive measures to avoid disturbances in personality. In all of these theories helped open new approac hes to human nature and psychotherapy. References Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2011). Personality. Classic Theories and Modern Research (5th ed.). Retrieved from University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Do You Believe That The Diagnosis And Resulting Profile Prepared By Management Analysis

Do you believe that the diagnosis and resulting profile prepared by Management Analysis Corporation was a necessary step in the process of finding potentially successful general managers? ExplainThe profile prepared by Management Analysis Corporation is the first step in the process of finding a potentially successful of general managers, but it is not the only step. Actually, after MAC has understood very clearly the needs of Dancey Electronics, they could picture the perfect leader. Once this was done, they could see what skills must be innate and what skills can be learned to become a leader.Then, MAC could propose one more interview to the candidates. For example, the candidates are faced to a concrete leadership problem, and they need to solve it very quickly. MAC should analyze reactions of the candidates and pick the best one. This means picking the person who has the best ability to change and to adapt to a new situation. So, I do not know yet if Joe Morris could be the good candidate for leading Dancey Electronics.Moreover, I think that the analysis done by MAC is a good way to find a potentially successful group of general managers because it accually describes the ideal qualities of being an effective general manager and at the same time gives us ideas about the relationship and task orientation of each candidate along with analysis of some important environmental factors that might have some effect on their leadership style, such as the company’s expectation and the subordinated expectation for the behavior of general managers.However, I think Management Analysis Corporation should analyze the behavior of the followers more. This way, MAC will know what leadership style would be the best for the group.What alternatives are available to modify Joe Morris’s potential effectiveness in the new general manager position?Joe Morris has a high task orientation it means he can apply an initiating structure focused on goals and results. But it i s not enough to lead a team. Joe Morris has to be more relationship oriented. We know that Joe Morris has low skills in relationship orientation. But a leader needs to communicate with his team to have an influence on the behavior of the individuals. If Joe Morris does not change, he could only be a manager, but not a leader. As we learnt in class, â€Å"leaders do the right things, managers do things right†.According to the Fielder theory, Joe Morris can make changes to be more relationship-oriented. He can spend more informal time (lunch, leisure activities) with his subordinates. He can also request particular people for work in his group. He can be a volunteer to direct difficult or troublesome subordinates. He can suggest or affects transfers of particular subordinates into his unit. Finally, Joe Morris can raise morale by obtaining positive outcomes (special bonuses, time off, attractive jobs) for subordinates.Moreover, Joe Morris should follow a training session to dis cuss and analyze his leadership situation. This way, he can understand his performance and improve it. If Joe Morris increases his position of power, he could be a better leader because he would repair his lack in relationship orientation.Why will it be difficult for Joe Morris to modify his style of leadership?Joe Morris knows how to organize and define the relationships in the group and he establishes well-defined patterns and channels of communication, and spells out ways of getting the job done. So it is a good start. But it would be difficult for him to modify his style of leadership because it is very hard to change him. Moreover, he does not have an overall insight of the company. He needs to fit in the group to eventually change. Considering that Joe Morris is far away from a good relationship orientation, it might be very difficult for him to understand what changes he has to do to modify his style of leadership.It also may be hard for Joe Morris to change his style of lead ership due to the argument against the path-goal theory whereby subordinates play a rule  in the leadership style of the manager. In that, Joe Morris has a low score in relationship orientation which means that his relationship with the employees may not be as effective and efficient. As a result, although Morris my want to change his leadership style type, employees may not be as willing to change given his low relationship orientation which therefore makes it hard for him to change his leadership style.But on the other hand, according to the Leader-Member Exchange Approach, there is no consistent leader behavior across subordinates and Joe Morris can behave in different ways with his future followers than he used to. So he may not have to change his style of leadership and still be appreciated by his followers. Therefore he will become a good leader.

Psycholinguistic: Linguistics and Language Essay

This study seeks to determine the relevance of the behavioristic and cognitive approaches for Saudi learners’ acquisition of English as a foreign language (EFL). A special attention is given to learners in EFL programs at the University level. It also assesses the effectiveness of these approaches on student in translation program as well. One contention is that while behaviorist-inspired structuralist methodologies are best applicable at the beginning levels, transformationalist/cognitivist approach contributes tried methodologies to enhance the learners’ written and spoken skills in advanced stages. Advances in translation can be achieved through a study of the process of translation with an emphasis on a deductive rather than an inductive approach. INTRODUCTION Foreign language teachers have long been perplexed by a continuum of abundant psycho-linguistic theories. One approach is the traditional method to second/foreign language teaching and learning. This embodied the grammar translation method which developed at the end of the eighteenth century in Germany and spread throughout Europe (Howat, 1984). The second approach is the direct method that developed in the late nineteenth century as a reaction against the grammar-translation method (R. Carter, 1993). Prior to the time of Chomsky, â€Å"little was known about the process of second language acquisition, and thus (traditional approaches) were grounded in the linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical theories of their day. †(1) The author has conducted literature search through Educational Resources Index (Eric) was well as Languages Association (MLA) and Psychological. Abstracts (Psyclit). It has been noticed that some work, mostly dissertation, have dealt with the Saudi acquisition of specific linguistic features of L2, such as Morpheme acquisition Order (Al-Afaleg, 1991), Temporal Conjunctions (Noor, 1991), English Derivational Morphology (Al-Qadi 1992) Tense and Aspect (Farraj, 1995) and Second Language Relative Clauses (Maghrabi, 1997), and Studies on the psycho-linguistic theories of language acquisition, specifically in relation to the Saudi learner of English do not seem to exist. There are four major theories of language acquisition and language learning which many psycholinguists and applied linguistics are familiar with:Behaviorism, neo-behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanism. The purpose of this article is to examine two of these theories: Behaviorism (which is related to structuralism) and cognitivism (which is related to transformationalism) and then show the extent to which these two theories relate to language learning and particularly to Saudi learners enrolled in EFL and translation programs in King Saud University. STRUCTURAL (BEHAVIORISTIC) VIEW: The psychological theory behind behaviorist linguistics was founded by J. B. Watson (1942). (2) The extreme behavioristic stand-point is characterized by B. F. Skinner’s well-known study, Verbal Behavior (1957) which presents a theory of language learning even more firmly planted in the court of Pavlovian animal behavior than the language theories of the Russian behaviorist school which was itself greatly influenced by the work of Pavlov. The work that could be regarded as the basic doctrine of the structural school of linguistic theory was Leonard Bloomfield’s Language (1933). In this work, Bloomfield argued that the study of language could be pursued without reference to psychological doctrines and he took a firmly behavioristic line aimed at scientific objectivity. Bloomfield did not deny the role of meaning in language, but he objected to its importance in the study of language at a time when human knowledge of the vast range of semantic association attached to every linguistic form was so very little. Moreover, he viewed semantics as a subordinate element to the primary stimulus response relationship of verbal behavior. To Bloomfieldians†¦ â€Å"language is nothing but a habit that the child comes to learn by imitation. In their account of language acquisition, the child is exposed to linguistic data which he/she internalizes and then reproduces at a later stage. Language is thus learned from outside, we learn it in the same way that we learn other habits. Learning a language is not very much different from the laboratory mouse learning to expect to be fed each time someone rings a bell. †(3) They believe that, â€Å"a scientific theory must reject all data that are not directly observable or physically measurable. †(4). To the behaviorists, habit formation is brought about through repetition, mimicry, and memorization. Thus no clear distinction seems to be made between learning the first language and the target language. To them linguistic habits, generalization and associations have to be repeated using different data. Skinner (1957) based his whole theory of language acquisition and speech realization on the recognizable external forms of what Chomsky terms â€Å"input and â€Å"output† and makes no allowance for any internal process of the organism. Stimulus and reinforcement (or reward) from the input and the â€Å"verbal operant† (or response) forms the output. The structuralists, whose views are related to behavioral psychology, see language as a finite list of ordered elements to which one can attach labels. They undertake a systematic analysis of structure. The teacher depends on such structural description as the distribution and combination of elements into a chain of speech. It is based on the process of substitution, the replacement of one unit by another unit of the same grammatical class. They follow a taxonomic approach in teaching. Their view is characterized by the insistence that language is learnt by the strength of habitual association and by the context generalization (i. e. general association). It is more of an inductive rather than a deductive system. The Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), who is an associationist, believes that â€Å"all language items are essentially interlinked. †(5) He argues that â€Å"language was like a game of chess, a system in which each item is defined by its relationship to all the others†¦language is a carefully built structure of interwoven elements. †(6) TRANSFORMATIONAL (COGNITIVE) VIEW: The transformational (cognitive) theories, represented by Noam Chomsky have been acknowledged by linguists as a revolutionary contribution to linguistics, though Chomsky himself related his views to those of Hambolt and to rationalist philosophers of the Seventeenth Century such as Descartes. The school of thinking, which has developed around Chomsky’s ideas, has been variously termed â€Å"Cognitive†, â€Å"mentalist†, â€Å"generative† and â€Å"transformationalist. †His Transformational Analysis (1955), Syntactic Structures (1957), Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), and Language and Mind (1968) are regarded as particular pioneer works of the new approach. The cognitivists reject the views of the behaviorists. They believe that â€Å"everybody learns a language, not because they are subjected to a similar conditioning process, but because they possess an inborn capacity which permits them to acquire a language as a normal maturational process. This capacity is by definition universal†¦the nature of language is such that it is impossible to explain it without postulating an innate mechanism of a fairly well-defined kind. †(7) They look for a universal grammar that contains universals relating to the deep-seated regularities characterizing all languages. For instance, subject and predicate, negative and adjectival forms are present in all languages because they are a universal feature, whereas the structuring and arrangement of these features belong to individual languages. The deep structure rules are limited by the grammar of each particular language. Universal grammar, according to Chomsky is â€Å"†¦a theory of the â€Å"initial state† of the language faculty, prior to any linguistic experience. †(8) To the cognitivist, children are born with an innate capacity for language development. The human brain is â€Å"ready† for language, in the sense that when children are exposed to speech, certain general principles for discovering or structuring language automatically begin to operate. These principles constitute, what Chomsky terms, a child language acquisition device (LAD). â€Å"A child uses its LAD to make sense of utterances heard around it, derived from his â€Å"primary linguistic data† hypotheses about the grammar of the language-what the sentences are, and how they are constructed. This knowledge is then used to produce sentences that, after a process of trial and error, correspond to those in adult speech: the child has learned a set of generalizations of rules, governing the way in which sentences are formed. †(9) Chomsky emphasizes the linguistic ‘creativity’, that is â€Å".. the ability of human beings to produce and comprehend an infinite number of novel sentences. †(10) Basic to this reason, Comsky believes that â€Å"Bloomfieldian linguistics was too ambitious in that it was unrealistic to expect to be able to lay down foolproof rules for extracting a perfect description of a language from a mass of data. It was too limited because it concentrated on describing sets of utterances which happened to have been spoken. †(11) Whilst the structuralist lays emphasis on the surface structure (patterns†¦etc.), the transformationalist lays emphasis on the processes of the deep structure; the stress is on learning to learn the development of a strategy of learning rather than the accumulation of information and rules. The structuralist tends to overemphasize the surface forms and the development of rules and to neglect the meaning. Unlike the behaviorists who believe that if there is a response there must be stimulus, the transformationalists (cognitivists) argue that language acquisition is autogenic and that the environment serves merely to trigger off a maturation process. Language comes primarily though the maturation that the environment triggers off and not through the environment itself. Erric Lenneberg, who is a cognitivist, also suggests that training is not necessary and that maturation is enough. His critical period hypothesis (1967) holds that â€Å"language acquisition must occur before the onset of puberty in order for language to develop fully. †(12) DISCUSSION Based on the contradictory views of the two schools, a brief discussion of how these views may relate to second language learning and teaching will be presented. This will be followed by a presentation (explanation) of the extent to which these views can apply to the case of the Saudi learner of English at the university level. From the preceding background, structuralism (behaviorism) seems to attribute the function of language to instruction and experience. A process of habit formation is brought about through repetition, mimicry, and memorization. There is a little difference between learning a first language and a target language. Linguistic habits, generalizations, and associations have to be repeated using different data. Cognitivism, on the other hand proposes that the processes of second language acquisition are not identical to those of the first language acquisition although there are similarities. One of the similarities could be that L2 may need to be learned at the same time as L1. Nevertheless, considering the question of universal and maturation, since acquisition of an L2 requires conscious control of learning and this cannot be handled at an early stage, transformationlists (cognitivists) hold that consciously controlled learning should be left to a much later stage, though there is no conclusive evidence to support this view. At this stage of analysis, it can be argued that, first, innate factors are less important for L2 learning than social factors of environment, motivation, and reinforcement. Second, a transformational system can perhaps operate with native speakers of a language, but although it is too complicated and may be confusing to be applied in second language/foreign language teaching, certain aspects may be useful. For instance, identification of kernel sentences which are similar in different languages, could be economical. Transformation could work from the comparison of these kernel sentences. Third, due to abstract characteristics of some of the cognitive views, the structural acquisition technique is probably more practical for formal learning in the first stages of the second language, and the cognitive technique may assume greater importance in the more advanced stages. Fourth, while some credence should be given to Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD), which explains why children invent new terms that mean nothing to adults, its limitations become real when dealing with adults learning a second language. That is when linguistic interference causes serious obstacles to second/foreign language learners. In such situation LAD will not be useful. Fifth, a structuralist method closely linked to Skinners’ stimulus-response-reinforcement theory of verbal behavior is the audiolingual approach which advocates the formation of the speech habits. Its feasible use can be realized through J. B. Carrol’s (1966) following basic terms such as: a) Speech is primary, writing secondary, so the habits that are formed in language must be speech habits. b) Automatic response is best achieved by constant repetition. c) Automatic response is best achieved by constant repetition. Offshoots of this theory are the language laboratory, structural drill, imitation, and memorization techniques. (13) Finally, cognitive theory advocates the development in the student of a conscious control of the psychological, grammatical, and lexical patterns of a given second language. This can be achieved through study and analysis of these patterns so that facility in using language stems from the teacher’s understanding of its structure. The structural approach (as it employs behavioristic means) has remained useful in the teaching of English as a foreign language, most importantly to help the learner acquire good language basis. For Saudi EFL learners, the use of drills at the phonetic level is of great help especially when dealing with segmental items that cause either interlingual or intralingual errors. A Saudi learner not only fail to produce the voiceless stop /p/ and the voiced fricative /v/ but tends to replace them with his L1 segments /b/ and /f/ respectively. Similarly, the velar nasal / / as a phoneme occurring at the final position of a word like â€Å"sing†, â€Å"long† which causes some difficulties for the Saudi EFL learner where he replaces it with the sequence of the two phonetic segments /n/ and /g/, and the alveo-palatal affricate /c/, occurring in words like â€Å"children† and â€Å"speech† where, instead, he transfers his Arabic alveo-palatal fricative /s/. Emphasis on drills will also enable the learner to reduce a possible interference of the Arabic syllable structure CVCV into the English structure. Since some Saudis tend to pronounce English words like â€Å"against† as *againist†, and â€Å"first† as *firist†. Structural (behavioristic) teacher can help in solving other problematic linguistic features such as agreement and word order which Saudi EFL learner encounter. Thus, patterns and exercises are needed to reduce erroneous forms such as *†He play, they buyed, talls buildings, and hypercorrections such as: * â€Å"He cans, and She musts†. The transformational cognitive orientation can be effective in the advanced stages of a foreign language acquisition. Thus, for Saudi students at the university higher levels, where advanced courses on linguistics and translation are offered, it is logical to assume that structural drills, repetitions, and memorization techniques will no longer be essential. At this level of advancement in the intimate knowledge of language and culture we may conceive a minimal level of interference from the native tongue (Arabic) of the learners. Yet, such aspects of the target language as deep structure and transformational rules will enable the Saudi learner to understand some of the idiosyncratic forms and ambiguous sentences. Transformational rules will reinforce the learner’s awareness of the syntactic and the semantic relations between various English linguistic patterns. Through these linguistic relations, learners can make inferences and develop some generalizations about the structure of English language. Communication strategies, conversation, and creative essay writing using cultural content will be more beneficial at these levels. With regard to the translation program, the analysis of source language texts that translators have to translate and the analysis of texts they have to create, a process of linking aspects from cognitivism with that of behaviorism should be observed. Negotiating the meaning of the source language text is not just a sociolinguistic matter; it is psycholinguistic as well. Saudi trainees in our translation program happened to have rendered the meaning of â€Å"They are into the habit of splitting straws† based on knowledge acquired through some behavioristic approach and produced a literal erroneous translation outcome. This means that there is always much room for the smaller scale experimentation on the factors affecting the text conversion process. The transformation of a text originally in one language into an equivalent text in a different language demands that the content of the message and the formal features and functional roles of the original text should be retained. In this regard the Saudi trainees translated the verb â€Å"laid† in â€Å"They laid him open to blackmail† without any reference to a likely secondary meaning that the verb â€Å"lay† might imply. This approach supports the belief that much of our experience of the external world of the senses and of the inner world of the mind is mediated by language and by the concepts stored in our memories. These factors refer to entities via the convention of language and do so variably depending on the medium of communication (language used). It is the process that creates the translation outcome and it is only by understanding that process that we can hope to help our Saudi trainees to improve their linguistic skills. Having said that, it is difficult to see how translation theories can move beyond the subjective and the normative evaluation of texts without drawing heavily on aspects from both behaviorism an cognitivism. Translation theories have made little systematic use of the techniques and insights of contemporary linguistics. With this fact in mind, Saudi translation trainees should be trained within a framework that combines features from all branches of cognitivism and behaviorism. This entails developing in the  trainees’ performance and competence a familiarity with and a competence in the use of the psychological and psycholinguistic models of memory and information processing on the one hand, and linguistic models of meaning, including meaning beyond the sentence on the other. Logic of the examples provided above asserts the validity of some aspects of the two psycholinguistic views. Cognitive approach may operate with some specific semantic and pragmatic aspects of L2 by means of exploring features as cohesion, conceptual and connotative meanings, speech acts and kinetics. Such features should, at this stage, receive due consideration. CONCLUSION From the above analysis proceeds that with regard to language acquisition, behavioristic theory can provide much useful information concerning verbal responses and reinforcement. But it is inadequate to account for innate and cognitive features. Transformational theory, on the other hand, provides much useful information on the basic nature of the organism and its internal processes, but makes little or no account of stimulus-response-reinforcement relationships. Unlike the cognitive approach, behavioral approach tends to manipulate the language and disregard the content. Despite the pedagogic significance of both theories, it seems that none of their approaches is complete in itself. For one reason, the nature of the Arabic language has significantly different phonetic and grammatical structure from that of the English language. Due to this difference and as advocated by Smith (1987) there are â€Å"†¦ far fewer areas of facilitation, and far greater areas of interference†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (14) The situation of the Saudi EFL learners at the university level requires an eclectic approach with combined aspects derived from the approaches stated earlier. This approach can guarantee more effective outcome at the pedagogical level. I believe the attitude, the age, and the aptitude of the learners are three factors that should be considered in second language acquisition. A combination of innate propensities and objective necessity create the most favorable attitude. All these factors, including the teaching strategies, stand for fundamental variables in learning a foreign language. Relationship between communicative exchanges and syntactic forms alert the translator to the mechanisms that link the highly abstract and universal proposition with the totally physical and context-dependent utterance or text. REFERENCES (1) Pica, T. P. Communicative Language Teaching: â€Å"An aid to second language acquisition? Some insights from classroom research. † English Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988. , (p. 70) (2) Malmkjaer K. (Ed. ) The Linguistics Encyclopedia, Routledge, Longon, 1991. , (p. 53) (3) Kebbe, Z. M. , Lectures in general Linguistics, An Introductory Course, Arabic Academic Press, Aleppo, 1995. , (p. 14) (4) Op. cit,(P. 53) (5) Aitchison, J. , Linguistics, Hodder Headline, London, 1992. , (p. 24) (6) Ibid. (p. 24) (7) Wilkins, D. A. , Linguistics in Language Teaching, Edward Arnold, London, 1974. , (p. 168-169) (8) Slakie, R. , The Chomsky Update, Linguistics and Politics, Unwin Hyman, Ltd, London 1990. , (p. 19) (9) Crystal,. D. , The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Cambridge University Press 1987. (p. 234) (10) Op. cit. (p. 26) (11) Ibid. , (p. 26) (12) Brown, H. D. and Gonzo, S. , Readings on Second Language Acquisition, Prentice Hall. , p. 77, 1995. (13) Carrol, J. B. , â€Å"The contribution of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Language†, in Trends in Language Teaching, Ed. , Valdmen, 1966. (14) Swan, M. and Smith, B. (Ed.) Learner English, Ateacher’s guide to interference and other problems, Cambridge University Press, 1987. , (p. 147) (15) Bloomfield, L. 1933 Language. London: Allen & Unwin. (16) Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 1965. (17) Chomsky, No. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton, 1957. Afaleg, O. â€Å"A Comparison of Morpheme Acquisition Order in Learners of English as a Foreign Language versus English as a Second Language: The Case of Adult Learners in Saudia. Diss. Indiana Univesity, Bloomington, 1991. (18) Qadi, N. S. , â€Å"Acquistion of English Derivational Morphology by Arab Speakers†, Diss. University of Georgia, Athens, 1991. (19) Farraj. , A. M. â€Å"Acquistion of Tense and Aspect in the English Based Inter-Language of Non-native Speakers†, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1995. (20) Noor, Hashim, â€Å"The Acquisition of temporal Conjunctions by Saudi Arabian Learners of English’, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 3, N. 1 (p. 101-2A), 1993. (21) Maghrabi, A. â€Å"The Roles of Psycholinguistic Constraints and Typological Influence in the Acquisition of Pronominal Copies in Relativization by Arabic and English Learners†, Thesis, Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. , 1997.

Christian virtues Essay

No general code of conduct covers both of them as if the kingdom of God had dawned before its time, Left-wing political idealists and just war theorists fail to distinguish these two hands of God and try to reconcile the tension between them, often at the expense of the state. They try to impose Christian virtues such as love and mercy upon the state but fail to recognize the depravity of our present lot and the need for the state to restrain its evils. Communism might have found its place in the early church with Ð ° people who were prepared to share all their possessions (Acts 2.43, 44; 4. 32), but this economic system does not work in the unregenerate world of laziness and selfishness. Pacifism might have served the church and its members well as Ð ° witness to divine grace and mercy, but the state would abdicate its responsibilities before God if it did not bear the sword and protect its citizens from criminals. It was Thomas Aquinas, not Augustine, who developed just war theory along the natural law tradition. Augustine did not discriminate clear, universal principles in order to declare Ð ° society or its wars just. He saw Ð ° distinct dichotomy between private behavior, which might refuse the use of the sword in self-defense, and the public right of the state to defend itself for the good of the community. Machiavelli agreed and spoke of two moralities subsisting side-by-side, the morality of the individual soul and the morality of the city. Some actions, while not virtuous from Ð ° private or Christian views, are still absolutely necessary if one wishes to defend the Republic. Protestant theologians tend to agree with this assessment. Emil Brunner did not believe that we could impose Ð ° version of absolute justice on Ð ° world darkened with sin. In the old Testament God did not impose Ð ° ban on divorce ‘because of the hardness of their hearts’, even if ‘it was not this way from the beginning’ and absolute justice would demand otherwise. Relative justice is all we can hope for in the realm of society and Ð ° world fallen from its original image. (Amit 2003 127) Reinhold Niebuhr rejected the possibility of doing well without causing some evil. In the real world, one must become tainted with its evil and fight force with force. So useful have terrorist attacks been to advancing the neocon agenda that hawks are intent on provoking more. As William Arkin wrote in the Los Angeles Times, Rumsfeld’s Defense Science Board recommended in 2002 the creation of Ð ° super secret â€Å"Proactive, Preemptive Operations Group (P2OG) to bring together CIA and military covert action, information warfare, intelligence, and cover and deception. Among other things, this body would launch secret operations aimed at `stimulating reactions’ among terrorists and states possessing weapons of mass destruction—that is, for instance, prodding terrorist cells into action and exposing themselves to `quick-response’ attacks by U. S. forces. Such tactics would †¦`signal to harboring states that their sovereignty will be at risk. † (Amy 2004 38) Another argument can be made that Islamist extremism, however it arose, can be combated more effectively if Ð ° larger number of citizens have Ð ° stake in non-extremist, increasingly democratized political systems. More freedom should be created to foster enhanced political participation and human investment in Middle Eastern states. Ð  greater degree of participation may occur without the implementation of other requisites of democracy. If our definition of freedom is free elections, Ð ° free press, and labor unions—it is absent in Saudi Arabia. Supporters of the Kingdom point to other methods of creating balance and justice in society, whereby the royal family protects the citizens and defends their values in exchange for their loyalty. While this may smack of feudalism to the reader, such bargains were fulfilled in Islamic history through the Ottoman concept of the circle of equity; self-governance of religious minorities; and the recognition of local, tribal, and familial authorities. Today’s Middle Eastern rulers are facing similar questions about the ways that democratization will alter earlier understandings of leadership or threaten its longevity. â€Å" (Sherifa 2005 28)

Impact of motivation on employee performance

Entrepreneurship is the tendency of a person to organize his own business and run it profitably, exploiting the qualities of leadership, decision making, managerial caliber, etc. Risk Talking Risk-taking In Its true sense Indicates that risk Is Ignored In taking decisions and actions. We should rightfully use the word ‘risk averse' for the entrepreneurs. Risk averseness implies taking ‘calculated' risk and expecting premium for the risk taken. As the risk goes up the expected premium in return also goes up at a higher rate.Calculated risk means a few things, namely, Determining how much risk one should take. Risk taking ability of a rich person Is higher than that of a poor person. Still, two equally rich persons In equal situations may not equally perceive the risk in a given opportunity. 0 Risk assessment is equally important. 0 Risk mitigation is the final step that a risk-averse person would consider while taking calculated risk. Risk mitigation means taking steps to manage risk. For example, Insurance against non-business Is essential; Identify non-business risks and insure them. Sense of limits In every society people develop sense of limits from parents, friends and rounding's. These are the limits of what we can do and what we cannot, and what we can accomplish and what we cannot. Such sense of limit Is a result of social permissiveness at a given point of time In a society. On one side, developing such sense of limit is desirable because without adhering to social norms a society cannot function as a civilized society. On the other, the same sense of limit would impose more ‘don't' than ‘dos'. Entrepreneurs are different. Hem do not abide by the limits recognized by the society or they fight against these limits. CLC Locus of control There are two types of people in the world- (I) those who blame others and external situations for whatever happens with them, and those who believe that they could have done something better to avo id certain situations that happened with them. The first type of behavior of people is called ‘external locus of control' and the second ‘Internal locus of control'. It Is obvious from the definition that entrepreneurs have ‘Internal locus of control'.The sense of Internal locus of control gives tremendous to learn from failures rather than accepting fate. 0 Control of future Entrepreneurs are always in control of the situation. Their responses to the unfolding situations are more matured rather than like reactions. This gives them control over the current period as well as the future. Creators Entrepreneurs create ideas, businesses and organizations. Often they like businesses that are unique compared to the routine ones. They like challenges and deal with them in a unique or creative way.Entrepreneurs are good at startups. Need for achievement We would like to include one more characteristic over what Hofmann listed; and that is entrepreneur's need for achievemen t. Entrepreneurs do not start business for making money. Money and profits are not his primary goals. Their passion, thus, is to convert their dreams into reality. 0 Ethics This is yet another characteristic that Hofmann did not discuss. Can anything substitute ethics for a successful person? Can an entrepreneur be unethical and still make long-term success and attain his need for attainment?A true entrepreneur, since he is not driven by motives of profits but needs to achieve or do something different for getting sense of satisfaction, will demonstrate high degree of business ethics. Ethical game is necessary for a long-term player in the business of innovation. Q. 2†¦.. Business plan is a written description of the business. It is comprehensive in nature and comprises details like promoters, existing and proposed products and/or services, know-how and techniques intended to use, among others. A brief description of contents of business plan. Description of venture: For an exi sting business, the details like date of establishment, Journey over time with significant milestones, employee data, sales and profit data over time (if history is too long then selected period of say, five years' tat would be enough), organization structure, operating philosophy, vision and mission statements, and details of enabling factors are important. 0 Operations plan: Several operations have to be carried out with a view to succeed in providing products and services.The business activity must be clearly broken down into the discreet operations and details must be provided how those operations will be performed given the resources. If the operations plan fail then production plan would also automatically fail. 0 Production plan: In case of manufacturing activity, the details of technology and its ministrations, success factors, realistic assumptions regarding utilization of plant capacity supported with evidences from other businesses, processes, manpower of material and sev eral other details that can have an impact on production would become an essential part of production plan. Organizational plan: In the absence of strong organizational backing the most lucrative business can also fail measurably. Business operates in a very dynamic environment, whether internal or external. A business organization must develop capability of capturing information regarding the changing external variable that may effect the current business or future opportunities of the business. Marketing plan: A business needs to define a market in terms of geographical area or demographic details of potential customers or consumers.Market feasibility report would help in identifying the scope of business opportunity, and from that canvass, a businessman has to determine the right segment of market wherein he would like to do business. Promotion plan, distribution network and other marketing policies are useful in evaluating the potential market for the goods and services offered by the business. Financial plan: The contents of the business plan are now converted into the financial numbers to present the financial plan.The financial plan gives income statements and balance-sheets for the projected period, depreciation schedule, interest payment schedule, working capital schedule, disability schedule, cash flow statements, working capital financing schedule and schedule of funds to be raised and serviced. The financial plan also includes calculation of several ratios that are useful in the evaluation of funding options. 0 Assessment of risks: The production and marketing plans are usually prepared on he most realistic scenario.If actual scenario turns out to be better than anticipated (sales price is higher, sales quality is higher, expenses are lower, among others), then there is a positive surplus profit. But what if things do not turn out as good as estimates and cost of project goes up, cost of capital is higher, enough capital is not available, sales pri ce remain low, sales quantity is less, expenses are higher, skilled people are not available, among others. The assessment of down-side impact of risk must be assessed, if not upside reward of risk. Q. 3†¦ Answer†¦..Marketing is a function over which we can have only an influencing power but hardly any control over the outcome. Therefore, marketing function is very important especially for a new enterprise. The market analysis is done before a business plan is prepared and it is included in the business plan, I. E. , at the project phase of a proposed business. Market Assessment base, primarily aimed at checking whether there is gap between demand and supply if the product or service that will be offered by the entrepreneur is an existing product with or without modifications.In case of a new product, the market assessment at time is Just an informed evaluation of potential market. Market assessment aims at defining the market that would be most appropriate for the product and that would give strongest opportunity for the long-term growth. This involves matching the product with customer needs. This strategy of defining the market segment for you is derived from customer research and competitive analysis. 0 Impact of Market Dynamics An entrepreneur must understand the market dynamics. Conceptually, demand and supply determine the price.Demand and supply constantly change and, therefore, pricing mechanism becomes dynamic, which is called market dynamics. Several factors play a role in affecting supply and demand and thereby, the prices of products. Competitors' price, income level, employment level, inflation, production level, government policies and a host of other factors individually and collectively affect the pricing of a product. 0 Achieving Market Acceptance The proof of success is finally in attaining the sales level at profitable conditions. The essence of it is in achieving market acceptance of products and services.Start-ups eave a greater risk in achieving market acceptance than the firms already in business. However, for the existing business too market acceptance of a new product is risky. 0 Day-to-Day Operation There are several aspects of day-to-day operations. Procurement, storage, production, transportation, inventory holding, sales, collections, maintenance, man-management and several other functions together can make operations possible. In today's world, management of information technology is also a matter of daily operations. However, we will discuss only two important aspects of day to- day operations here.They are namely, (I) procurement of material-inventory and (it) use of information technology. Strategies for Growth The issue of growth is strategic in nature, therefore, it involve strategic thinking, and hence, application of SOOT analysis. A SOOT analysis model must suit the need for answering a particular question, which is related to either direction of growth or rate of growth or strategy for gr owth. Strategic models are described and their applications are explained in each of these fields of strategic decisions in the following sections of this unit.Growth Direction Decision Synergy is the measure of an effect on the net benefits of combining more than one activity. Synergy is said to exist when the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. The presence of some strength and its best fit with available opportunities are essential for creating a positive synergy. For the growth direction issue the synergy is searched in the areas of product and market. A SOOT analysis on these two parameters can give a quick idea about the value creating growth alternatives.